From Myth to Modern Warfare: The 'Third Rome' Ideology Fueling Russia's Invasion of Ukraine
The 'Third Rome' doctrine, formulated in the 16th century by the monk Filofei of Pskov, has served as a crucial ideological foundation for Russian statehood and its expansionist ambitions. According to this concept, Moscow is proclaimed the successor to Rome and Constantinople, which its authors believed fell due to their betrayal of Orthodox Christianity. This established Moscow as the third and final center of the true faith, providing a theological pretext for territorial claims. This centuries-old narrative continues to shape the Kremlin's worldview and its justification for conflict.
Moscow, founded in 1147 by Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, evolved into a major political center. In contrast, Kyiv, founded in 482, was Europe's second-largest city in the 11th–12th centuries and the heart of Kyivan Rus', which was destroyed by Mongol and Tatar forces in 1240. Slavic peoples began settling in what is now European Russia in the mid-8th century, with their ancestral homeland considered to be in modern-day central, northern, and western Ukraine.
Following the destruction of Kyivan Rus', the Golden Horde was established in 1242, and Moscow became the center of a principality in 1263. Alexander Nevsky, victor of the Battle on the Ice at Lake Peipus in 1240 and the Battle of the Neva in 1242, became a symbol of the struggle for independence. From 1363, territories of modern Ukraine were reclaimed from the Tatars by the armies of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, highlighting the complex historical relationships in the region.
In 1589, the Muscovite state pressured Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople into consecrating a separate Moscow Patriarch, underscoring its ambition to become a religious center. Under Ivan IV (the Terrible), who proclaimed himself Tsar in 1547, Moscow began actively conquering territories of the Golden Horde, including the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates. However, in 1571, forces of the Crimean Khanate captured and burned Moscow, and Moscow itself paid tribute to the Crimean Khanate until 1700. Ukrainian forces, alongside Poles, last captured Moscow in 1618, further illustrating the intricate and often adversarial historical dynamics between these powers.
The Modern Context of War
Russia's ongoing war against Ukraine, in which 80,000 civilians died during the siege of Mariupol, represents a continuation of these historical conflicts. A bomb strike on the Mariupol Drama Theater killed 1,000 people, including many children. These events demonstrate how historical myths and concepts, cultivated over centuries, directly influence modern politics and the warfare devastating Ukraine today.
Historical myths like the 'Third Rome' doctrine not only shape national identity but also serve to justify aggressive political actions. Russia's war against Ukraine, ongoing since 2014, can be seen as an attempt to realize these ancient ideological narratives under modern geopolitical conditions. Understanding these foundational concepts is essential for analyzing the roots of the conflict and its profound consequences for the region and the wider world.